Ethical Consideration in Probation and Parole Research Paper

Ethical Consideration in Probation and Parole - Research Paper Example This article reveals the various ethical considerations that underpin the probation and parole systems. The idea of the article is that these systems should be reformed to ensure that they are effective and protect the rights of the public. Thus, it is an important contribution to the community correction aspect of the social justice systems. Probation and parole are some of the criminal correction procedures in many states in the world. Probation in criminal law refers to a period of supervision of an offender outside prison while a parole refers to the release of a criminal from prison before completing their term in prison. The offenders under parole and probation are set free to interact with the community under particular conditions. In the recent past, the conditions that offenders have to serve are raising ethical issues that need to be addressed. While it is clear that this is a better term for offenders, the conditions provided at times are dehumanizing and sometimes may have long term impacts on the community and the offenders. While many researchers argue that a great percentage of offenders prefer these conditions rather than spend their time in prison, these strict conditions have raised questions whether in reality these measures serve their intended purpose. From the fact that the parole and probation cond itions may affect the health, privacy and sanity of the offender and the community, it true that there is need to reform these conditions. In the recent past, the parole and probation have become more common forms of community correction methods. The argument of the government is that it is a more friendly approach of reinstating order in the society without necessarily having to imprison the offenders. The rationale for providing probation is that the person is not a potential threat to the community if released. The offender is released under close supervision to monitor their

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War?

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War? Introduction Undoubtedly, the twentieth century could be counted as the bloodiest in human history; man has been at war for much longer than he has been at peace. The death tolls are incalculable although historians put estimates at somewhere between 170 million to 210 million. No true figures are available but what is undisputed is the proliferation and effect of war on all aspects of society. Its impact on the soldier and the civilian as well as the economy and society or culture has given birth to the concept of ‘total war’  (Marwil, 2000). The last time total war was experienced was the Second World War which invariably led to the Cold War and its all-encompassing nature on every aspect of society  (Stavrianakis & Selby, 2012). Particularly with technology, the 20th century has seen the advancement of technology to epistemic levels where it has produced the concept of ‘modern war’ – atomic weapons, satellite guided missiles, chemical and biological weapons and electronic drones; none of which have eclipsed the older forms of warfare  (Barkawi, 2011). A new form of warfare has evolved and it is part of the 4th Industrial Revolution; it is cyber warfare. To understand its significance, one only has to look at former President Barack Obama declaring the digital infrastructure of the US as strategic national asset to be protected with the entire resources available to the United States. Obama prompted the formation of a special unit in the Pentagon called Cybercom whose sole purpose is to prepare the US for the inevitable cyber war that America will be embroiled in. The UK has also set up the National Cyber Security Programme and NATO has released the Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare; a three-year study by international scholars setting out ninety-rules to govern conflicts among nations. Cyber warfare is definitely gearing up as a new arena for conflict. This dissertation looks at the subject of cyber warfare and examines how widespread a concern this is to nations and if indeed it is just a concern of the super powers. Just like atomic weapons has become a military weapon of magnitude, the world has still not experienced a nuclear war. Instead nuclear energy is being used to advance economies and aid production and meet energy needs. Is cyber space similar to the threat of nuclear weapons? Does it actually do more good that the proposed harm that is being touted? This dissertation will carry out a secondary data analysis to understand the current literature on the subject and determine if indeed cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Narrative The organising principle of every theme in this dissertation is layered; each begins with a general historical and contextual appraisal invariably moving to specifics and constantly looking at the problem-solution dilemma. To substantiate or clarify explanations, arguments, themes, findings etc., footnotes will be included and/or non-integral citations will be used to focus attention more on the research being discussed and less on the researchers or authors. All related studies to this dissertation will be research/information prominent. With a few exceptions, English is used entirely in this dissertation and therefore tense usage is important in the organisational narrative. Where reference is made to a single study, the past simple tense will be used. Where reference is made to more than one study or an area of research, the present perfect tense will be used. Where reference is made to generally accepted knowledge, particularly with respect to cyber warfare or generally accepted knowledge in international relations, information technology or geopolitics, the present tense will be used. Finally, the choice of reporting verbs in this dissertation will inadvertently express a certain attitude be it critical distance, doubt, certainty, confusion etc. As much as possible, I have tried to maintain the same reporting verbs used in citing research and evoking emotion in my reflexive thoughts. Sometimes this has not been possible and the same reporting verb will express different attitudes depending on the context. Where this has occurred, I have elaborated any misconception or misunderstanding in the corresponding footnotes. Themes and concepts The chronological order of the table of contents gives a straightforward description of the chapter and sub-chapter headings in this dissertation. Thematically, the dissertation is divided into 4 chapters. Chapters 1-3 deal with the research justification as well as academic and methodological underpinnings. These chapters set the terms of reference for the dissertation and elaborate its research direction and deal with the subject matter, cyber warfare. Chapter 4 deals with the results, discussion of the results and conclusion. Theoretical and conceptual framework War, Conflict and Anarchy It is imperative to understand international relations and the theories and concepts underpinning them before looking at cyber warfare as a new arena for war. The Melian Dialogue in the great 5th century BC classic of Thucydides’ â€Å"History of the Peloponnesian War† best describes the context in which one looks at the international system. At a point in the Peloponnesian Wars, the Athenians wanted to take over the neutral island of Melos to obtain control over the Aegean Sea. An Athenian fleet was dispatched to Melos to try and negotiate a surrender and the ensued dialogue, as told by Thucydides, captures the essence and birth of our international system today. The Athenians declared to the Melians that â€Å"since you know as well as we do that right, as the world goes, is only in question between equals in power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must.† (Thucydides) The international system today is premised on the fact that nation states can and do exert their power over weaker states although some do work through a collaborative system to ensure a common purpose. The study of international relations begins with the very notion that there is no central authority which acts as the ultimate arbiter in world affairs. Nations simply do what they can through mutually beneficial alliances and discard them when their interests are no longer served. If we look at world history before the 20th century, international relations could be said to be in a state of anarchy as there was no central figure. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Despite China being a hyperpower for 800 years, there is no record of any central authority governing the behaviour of nation-states. They simply did what they could to nations who couldn’t fight back. Ironically China was insular and did not engage in any international conflicts. Every study of international relations or politics beyond that makes assumptions about the state of anarchy and offers a counter explanation of an international system with inter-state relations and a hierarchical intrastate system. A system that we have now with bodies like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization regulating economic relations and the International Criminal Court prosecuting crimes against humanity.   International relations deals with how nation states decide to exist without a central authority or with no structure or how they choose to create one. Waltz (1979) describes the juxtaposition of the international system and the domestic system by explaining that   domestic systems are centralized and hierarchic†, international systems are decentralized and anarchic†Waltz 1979, p. 88 All approaches to international relations and studying the behaviour of nation-states begins with an assessment of the anarchic structure in the international system. Anarchy is the starting point of viewing international relations but that view depends on the perspective a country chooses to take. Let’s begin with the oldest view recorded since the Melian dialogue between the Athenians and the Melians. The ‘political realist’ perspective is known as a theory one subscribes to in international relations. A political realist is under no illusions that countries behave with the single purpose of self-interest and therefore actions and reactions are done to defend that interest. Nation states are geared towards survival, according to the realist and this can often mean exerting strength over a weaker enemy or acceding to a collaboration with a stronger foe. All is done for the purpose of ensuring the continuation of the state by any means necessary. Therefore, the only way to predict behaviour is to predict survival. Realists do not see a set of behavioural guidelines but a survival of the fittest in the ‘international jungle of world politics’. Or as one might put it succinctly, ‘might is right’. To the realist, the international order is that of ensuring that power relations are conducted in such a manner that outcomes are mutually exclusive. One party will always gain over the other so the purpose for the nation-state in any negotiations is to be the winner. Where this cannot be achieved then the realist will view this as a precarious position to be in. Realists’ view of the anarchical order can describe the behaviour of nation-states in various ways from the classical realist to the neorealist and several forms in between. Whichever view is subscribed to, anarchy forms the basis of that world view and the expected behaviour of nation-states  (Heginbotham, 2015). Liberalist recognise the importance of anarchy in the international system in just the same way as the realists. Both liberal and realist accept the absence of a supreme authority directing the affair of nation-states. Where liberals and the liberal view differ on the subject is what can be done within the anarchic system. Liberals believe that nation-states and state actors can actually come together to build rules, guideline, set up institutions and appoint various monitoring bodies to govern or at least modify the behaviour of nation-states so that they can work together for a common person  (Barkawi, 2011). Outcomes do not have to be mutually exclusive but can be mutually beneficial in an anarchic system, according to the liberal view of international relations. Through joint cooperation, liberals believe that the behaviour of nation-states can be changed to achieve a level of power where states feel secure about their relationships with other states and do not seek to consolidate power at the expense of others. This classical liberal view can be seen in the world today as neoliberalism. Liberals still see anarchy in the international system but see it as something that can be overcome through a concerted effort. Whatever view one prescribes, the prevailing wisdom is that nation states will shift between theories and concepts to advance their own agenda and not confine themselves to an enduring guiding principle. The concept of cyber warfare, I would argue, follows suit. Defining the cyber world Almost twenty-five years ago, ‘cyberspace’ as we know it did not exist beyond the primitive computers placed in research laboratories and academic institutions. In fact, cyberspace was merely a theoretical concept that was considered unachievable. Today that has drastically changed. Our world would be unfathomable without cyberspace. To put its vastness into perspectives, approximately 4 billion people are online with roughly 50 billion devices ranging from super computers to desktops to laptops to smartphones to tablets. On a yearly basis, 90 trillion emails are sent and two trillion transactions are conducted in cyberspace (Turns, 2012). Cyberspace permeates are lives so much that we use it for everything from international trade, to logistics, communications, record keeping, financial transactions to sending flowers! All these positive contributions are the benevolent side of cyberspace. The malevolent aspect of cyberspace is ignored by the public unless a scare or scandal brings it to the surface. Figures estimate that on a daily basis, around 55,000 pieces of malware are found, 200,000 computers are ‘hijacked’[1]as well as the countless number of frauds that go unreported. How exactly does one define cyberspace? That question is not easy to answer as there are as many answers as there are experts in the field. A notable expert worth considering is Daniel Kuehl who collected a series of definitions from various sources and analysed his findings  (Curran, et al., 2008). He concluded that cyberspace consisted of a few dimensions namely; An operational space – it is an operational space where proponents of the domain ply their trade and perfect their skills. An electronic domain – it is an electronic network comprising of computers and a vast network of electromagnetic activityInformation domain – it is a network of information that is not limited to a particular location, time and space Kuehl analysed all these aspects and offered his own definition which will be used in this dissertation: â€Å"A global domain within the information environment whose distinctive and unique character is framed by the use of electronics and the electromagnetic spectrum to create, store, modify, exchange and exploit information via interdependent and interconnected networks using information-communication technologies.†Kuehl, 2009 Cyber terrorism is a portmanteau of the words cyberspace and terrorism and was first recognised and used in 1996 but became popular after a 1998 report from the Center for Strategic and International Studies titled Cybercrime, Cyberterrorism, Cyberwarfare: Averting an Electronic Waterloo. The report discussed the possibilities of an electronic attack, likely outcomes and expected methods  (Carr, 2011). Three terms are often confused when discussing Cyber terrorism so it is crucial that they are defined here. Cyber terrorism: â€Å"It is premeditated, politically motivated attacks by sub national groups or clandestine agents, or individuals against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in violence against non-combatant targets (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Information warfare: â€Å"It is a planned attack by nations or their agents against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in enemy losses (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Cyber crime: â€Å"Cyber crime is a crime committed through the use of information technology (Colarik & Janczewski, 2008).† This is more of the documented cyber related terms because it has received adequate coverage due to its proliferation in domestic law enforcement. In the U.S., the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act defines Internet criminal acts (Jensen, 2009). Furthermore, the â€Å"European Union members of the NATO alliance have domestic laws implementing the 1995 E.U. Data Privacy Directive† (Knapp & Boulton, 2006). For argument’s sake, cybercrime includes offences such as; the impairment of data, misuse of devices, interception of data offenses. traditional criminal offenses facilitated through the use of the internet, e.g. fraud, copyright infringement, child pornography Cybercrime has received a lot of international attention and was formally discussed at the Council of Europes 2001 Convention on Cybercrime  (Robinson, et al., 2015). This convention is still the only international understanding in place that exclusively focusses on cybercrimes. Terrorism: â€Å"The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a person or an organized group against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments, often for ideological or political reasons (Dragan, et al., 2012).† Research Approach Research Questions This research will attempt to explore and answer three questions regarding the broad themes that preliminary research has shown and in line with the gaps in current academic research; What exactly is cyber space?Is an information war a ‘war’ in the conventional sense?Is Russia engaging in a cyber war with the West? The dissertation considered various approaches to address the questions above as well as examine different options such as sources of data, type of research framework, timescale and methodology. In trying to answer any of the research questions, it was clear that any primary data used to carry out the research and with the available time limit would not be possible or indeed produce valuable information. This dissertation needed to design an analytical framework to counter this problem. Thus, I attempt to make a justification for carrying out secondary analysis of qualitative data and the benefits and limitations of the approach Secondary Data Collection In setting about the data collection, it was imperative I included boundaries for the study, the protocol for recording the data as well as the methodology for analysing it which are all set out below. The secondary data included qualitative documents and qualitative audio and visual materials. The list of secondary evidences kept evolving and the research continued. However, below is the final list of secondary evidences used. Data from various government departmentsNews articles from newspapersData and analysis from periodicals, books, journals etc.Data from non-governmental agencies and public bodiesData from online sources Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data Secondary data analysis is essentially re-analysis of data collected by another researcher (Elliot, 2015). Andrews et al gave a definition of secondary data analysis as the collection and use of previously collected data for another purpose  (Andrews, et al., 2012). In addition, they also explained that the use of secondary data analysis first appeared when one of the founders of Grounded Theory (Glaser) discussed the possibility of re-analysing data that had already been collected for other purposes (Andrews, et al., 2012). Notwithstanding, secondary analysis is still not very popular and there have been very limited reviews of its use (Hinds, et al., 1997). At this point, it is pertinent that a distinction be made between secondary analysis, documentary analysis, systemic reviews and meta-analysis. Secondary data analysis is the examination of primary data[2] from previous research studies. Such data would include examples such as semi-structured interviews, research diaries, responses to open-ended questions in questionnaires, transcripts of interviews/conversations etc. On the other hand, documentary analysis would involve the analysis of data such as auto-biographies, personal diaries, photographs etc. Heaton does point out that there could be some considerable overlap between secondary analysis and documentary analysis (Heaton, 2008). Meta-analysis and Systematic Reviews both involve both involve going over published findings of previous research studies unlike secondary data analysis that looks at the primary data and not just the published findings. Review & Discussion Introduction Cyber warfare has different definitions depending on which theorist is applying it and which country is examining and applying the concept; for example, the U.S. military view cyber warfare in very different terms from the Russians. To begin with the word â€Å"cyber† is a completely new phenomenon that arose after the dot com boom and the start of the 4th Revolution. Not surprisingly, it has not filtered into the established rules of war or armed conflict adhered to by other nation states  (Chen, 2010). For starters, the word â€Å"cyber† is not found in the 1949 Geneva Conventions and any of the additional Protocols (it has not been inserted there). The word, in common usage, relates to a whole host of things ranging from computers and their networks to the information in these computers to even the process of uploading and retrieving this information. By extension, the word cyber warfare will include acts committed in furtherance of any act against and adversary using everything that is considered part of the ‘cyber’ domain. In looking at acts, cyber warfare would include offensive acts, defensive acts or acts of deterrence. By this explanation, it will include disseminating offensive information through computers or computer networks  (Andress & Winterfeld, 2011). Cyber warfare is one that has no clear boundaries or actors which makes a lot of the current legislation unhelpful. Acts of war or states of war are usually assigned to recognised states and combatants. But in this case, cyber warfare can be conducted by states, agents of states, non-state actors, international groups or any collection of people with a single vested interest or even one individual  (Cornish, et al., 2010).   Cyber Warfare and the legal question This dissertation started off with trying to determine if cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Even though I have attempted to define ‘cyber’ and ‘cyber warfare’, there are still large parts of this area of study that need to be examined. A lot of the current research already makes the assumption that cyber warfare is warfare because of its obvious name or that a few of the permanent members of the UN Security Council are making the case. But what is the legal argument to justify treating cyber warfare as warfare? Let’s begin with the least disputed agreement and definition of what leads to armed conflict. It is generally accepted that â€Å"armed force† is the necessary requirement for â€Å"armed conflict†. The UN Charter Article 2(4) provides, All members [of the UN] shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State . . .,. Exceptions are use of force authorized by the Security Council, and self-defence pursuant to Article 5 1.† Even customary law that applies to non-UN members still has the expectation of the same necessary requirement although it must be pointed out that this is only applicable to state actors (Kelsey, 2008). Non-state actors where not envisioned when the Charter was framed. Nonetheless, this is still the legal argument as it stands. Cyber warfare does not seem to meet the threshold of ‘armed force’ although many would argue otherwise. And it is this argument that is usually translated into the foreign policy of some states  (Gompert & Libicki, 2014). Even the UN Charter Article 51 still proposes that a response to attack is only justified if the initial or first attack is an armed attack. As it stands today, cyber warfare is not recognised as a legitimate war just in the same way that the ‘War on Terror’ is not a legitimate war but a cornerstone of US foreign policy. By extension, it stands to reason that a cyber attack is not in reality an attack recognised by the UN (Droege., 2012). Ultimately the view of whether an act is a cyber attack or part of cyber warfare is merely one that is only determined by the recipient of the act and how they choose to respond; through dialogue or retaliation? In addition, the judgement of the international community plays a significant part even though state actors often form alliances that ensures that an attack on one nation state could be an attack on the entire alliance; e.g. a cyber attack on a NATO member state. Not having a legal basis for an action does not in any way imply that it is not treated as a conflict or war. We only have to look at the U.S. justifications for bombing, Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria in clear violation of the U.N. Charter; none of these states had perpetrated an armed attack against the U.S. The international community enjoined the U.S. even though other states had pointed out at the clear hypocrisy being committed by the U.S. If one is to consider cyber warfare and cyber attacks, then answering the legal question is insufficient. One must refer to the prevailing theory of international relations one subscribes to or comment on wider matters governing a state’s behaviour. This dissertation will look at empirical examples of cyber warfare. Global Cyber warfare: China vs US In todays information age, the Peoples Republic of China has replaced and even improved upon KGB methods of industrial espionage to the point that the Peoples Republic of China now presents one of the most capable threats to U.S. technology leadership and by extension its national security.Dan Verton, Cyber Warfare Expert (Hjortdal, 2011) It is easy to forget that in 1820, Greece had revolted against the Ottoman Empire, Britain had opened the first modern railway and was on its way to an exploding industrial revolution, Brazil had nervously declared independence from Portugal and that China was the world’s superpower with the largest share of global GDP. In fact, it is easy to forget because history has been written specifically to gloss over these facts. Western academia has repeatedly highlighted China as a collective of starved, dispossessed and slaughtered people and not a prosperous, dynamic and global power from 1100 – 1820. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Western imperialism and China’s decline has been documented in detail which this book cannot do justice to. The rise of Chinese economic and political strength is unquestionably due to the Communist Party of China which began when the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of China adopted a reform policy triggering the private sector[3].   Since 1978, entrepreneurship has driven the Chinese economy and the economic and political changes since then remain unprecedented. So transformative has this change been that China is now a threat to the US in the information superhighway. A recent event in 2016 puts this threat into context. China builds world’s fastest supercomputer without U.S. chips â€Å"China on Monday revealed its latest supercomputer, a monolithic system with 10.65 million compute cores built entirely with Chinese microprocessors. This follows a U.S. government decision last year to deny China access to Intels fastest microprocessors. There is no U.S.-made system that comes close to the performance of Chinas new system, the Sunway TaihuLight. Its theoretical peak performance is 124.5 petaflops, according to the latest biannual release today of the worlds Top500 supercomputers. It is the first system to exceed 100 petaflops. A petaflop equals one thousand trillion (one quadrillion) sustained floating-point operations per second.†ComputerWorld (June 20, 2016 http://www.computerworld.com/article/3085483/high-performance-computing/china-builds-world-s-fastest-supercomputer-without-u-s-chips.html) It has earlier been argued that cyberspace is open to both state actors and non-state actors. Because actions can be taken by an individual in a state, it is extremely hard to prove culpability of the state. In other words, a cyber attack from a computer in China in no way implies that the cyber attack was orchestrated by the Chinese state. Proving culpability is extremely hard and this fact alone hinders the argument that cyber warfare could be a new arena of conflict. Having said this, the media is awash with stories of Chinese cyber attacks on the U.S. but it is always lacking in evidence. Ironically, one never hears of U.S. cyber attacks on China or at the very least the mainstream media never reports it. Despite China’s repeated denials of culpability and its demand for proof that its citizens are responsible for cyber attacks on U.S. interests, the U.S. have taken the bold step in 2011 to issue a statement from the National Counterintelligence Executive that China is the â€Å"most active and persistent perpetrator of cyber intrusions into the United States† (Heginbotham, 2015).    As there are no clearly defined rules on cyber warfare, any escalation of tensions between China and the U.S. could be construed and framed in the words of a potential conflict similar to the rhetoric that started and fuelled the Cold War between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. This Cold War metaphor is how commentators are viewing the Cyber race between China and the U.S. According to President Barack Obama’s 2011 Cyberspace Policy Review, â€Å"cybersecurity risks pose some of the most serious economic and national security challenges of the 21st century† (Solis, 2014). This rhetoric is backed up by the steps the U.S. has taken to secure its strategic advantage in the domain. In 2009, the U.S. created the Cyber Command under the National Security Agency (NSA) with the express purpose of putting cyber warfare in the forefront of its military and defensive strategy. In addition, the Department of Defence (DoD) also has the Pentagon Strategy for Operating in Cyberspace with China clearly set in its sights. These aggressive overtures by the U.S. have not been ignored. According to the Chinese Ministry of Public Security, they are of the opinion that cyber attacks on Chinese computer installations grow at a rate of 80% annually making China the largest and most venerable recipient of cyber attacks   (Robinson, et al., 2015). To put it into context, in 2011, China succumbed to a cyber attack where 100 million usernames, passwords and emails were leaked unto the internet. What is commonly acknowledge is that the U.S. practically controls the entire internet and other states are using every means possible to reduce the influence of that control and threat even though the US was instrumental in the development of the internet. For the global internet to be fully operational, it requires 13 root serves. 10 of the 13 are based in the US and the other 3 are based in Japan, Sweden and the Netherlands. ICANN, the body that authorises domain names and designations is based in the U.S. With these facts in mind, the U.S. has the most potential to turn cyber space into a cyber threat. At least that is the argument posed by China and they insist on being able to protect their national interests. With both sides staking a national interest priority, it is not surprising that cyber warfare could be the next arena between the U.S. and China (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). Global Cyber warfare: Russia vs the rest of the world The Russians view cyber and cyberspace in completely contradictory terms to the U.S. and the West in general. First and foremost, the Russians do not generally refer to the term cyber as a distinct concept in the way political theorists in the West do. Russia, and to some extent China, have a wider understanding of information and its control regardless of the medium chosen. So, given its long history with controlling information about and through the state during the era of the Soviet Union, electronic information is just one conduit or category of information that can be utilized, manipulated and harnessed for the greater good of the state. That is to say that the notion of cyber is just another mechanism by which information is relayed and does not take priority over other mechanisms in importance just in practical relevance. In Russian military doctrine, information and disinformation go hand in hand and are tools used by the state apparatus to achieve a desired objective for its citizens or against its adversaries. It is utilized with judicious foresight towards a purpose in addition to other traditional methods and processes. In practical terms, if information (or disinformation) helps another weapon to tool, then Russian military theorists see electronic information merely as an enabler or facilitator. Therefore information is relevant to already established practices of the state such as disinformation operations, electronic warfare, Psychology Operations (also known as PsyOps), political subversion and subterfuge, economic warfare etc. According to (Carr, 2011), â€Å"this is stated clearly in the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2010) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. features of modern military conflicts is the prior implementation of measures of information warfare in order to achieve political objectives without the utilization of military force and, subsequently, in the interest of shaping a favourable response from the world community to the utilization of military force.†Carr, 2011 Cyber warfare, according to Russian theorists, is just information warfare by another means but more efficient than other types of information warfare. Cyber warfare is a legitimate tool of the state, so the argument goes, in peacetime and in conflict. It does not hold a special prominence like it does in the U.S. Cyber warfare is regulated to accompanying other tools of the state but given its nature, it has no set rules, no boundaries, no prescribed limits and no real restrictions or applications. Such a view is diametrically opposite to that of the concept of cyberspace held in the West. In support of this theory, the Russian state apparatus is structured quite differently from the U.S. Cyberspace and cyber warfare started under the remit of the Federal Security Service (Federal’naya Sluzhba Bezopastnosti: FSB) which was tasked with initiating information and disinformation wars using whatever means necessary including cyber warfare. The FSB also maintains and controls SORM, the State’s internal cyber surveillance system. In addition to the FSB, The Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Telecommunications, Information Technologies and Mass Communications (Roskomnadzor), is also tasked with controlling the civilian media, telecommunications, the internet, the radio and any electronic media. Russia’s strategy of seeing cyber warfare as a continuation of normal political and military overtures was witnessed in the war with Georgia in 2008  (Robinson, et al., 2015). To date, Russia is still the only country to use all three of military, economic and cyber warfare on an adversary in the international arena. Russia had a two-pronged attack when it used military weapons and cyber warfare to defeat Georgia. Similarly, in its conflict with Ukraine in 2014, its conventional use of military weapons and cyber warfare resulted in Ukrainian government websites being shut down, massive ‘denial of service’ attacks being reported and energy installations being hacked into. This is the first of many of these sorts of ‘total warfare’ that will continue in the new future. One only has to read newspaper reports of cyber attacks occurring on a daily basis. But does this constitute a new arena of conflict? I think given what is already going on in conflicts around the world, the question has already been answered. Whether by design or accident, states are using cyber warfare as a tool against their adversary  (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). World’s first Cyber War No other body of research could be more persuasive that presenting details of the world’s first cyber war to support the argument that cyber warfare is now a new arena of conflict. The first known incident of an entire country being subjected to an all out cyber war was Estonia. To understand the gravity of this event is to look at the history of Estonia.   Estonia was controlled by the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years and obtained its independence in 1991. Then it was a desolate country which has been starved of infrastructure and economic development. With a population of just under 2 million, it has carved a future for itself as one of the most wired and technological advanced countries in the world. It is truly a model of a smart country with widespread ecommerce and e-government services almost unparalleled anywhere in the world. As a state once controlled by the Soviets until 1991, the country is punctuated with Soviet history and struggle. The capital city, Tallinn, had monuments erected to the Soviet soldiers who fought and died in the struggle to keep Germany out of Russia. Estonia, as it is their right, decided to move the monument to a cemetery which met angry objections from Russian leaders and the large Russian community that grew out of a 50 year occupation. Russia saw Estonia as a symbol of struggle and the Estonians saw Russia as a symbol of oppression. After altercations in the city centre following the removal of the monument, Estonia found that its entire electronic infrastructure was disrupted. The state administration was paralysed, banks and companies had to freeze their operations, the internet was practically down and nothing was working. Culpability was had to prove but it was the first recorded total cyber war against a state. Again, there is no proof that the perpetrators were state spon sored or indeed it was a malicious attack but the timing and the magnitude points to more than a criminal cohort (there was no financial advantage gained in the event) and to a state sponsored cyber attack. More importantly, Estonians pointed the finger at Russia and being members of NATO, they retained the prerogative to invoke Article 5 of NATO: an attack against one is an attack against all. Postscript If there was any uncertainty about cyber warfare becoming the new arena of conflict then the headlines below might seem ominous as they are similar to the headlines that preceded the First World War and the Second World War. And these were in just over 3 days. â€Å"Malta accuses Russia of cyber-attacks in run-up to election The embattled Maltese government has claimed that it has come under attack from a Russian-backed campaign to undermine it, amid worsening relations with the Kremlin. Malta assumed the presidency of Europe’s Council of Ministers in January, an important position under which it chairs high-level meetings in Brussels and sets Europe’s political agenda. Since then, the Maltese government’s IT systems have seen a rise in attacks, according to a source working within its information technology agency, a government body. He claimed the attacks, which have increased ahead of next month’s general election, are designed to damage the government. â€Å"In the last two quarters of last year and the first part of this year, attacks on our servers have increased,† the source said.†Ã‚  (Doward, 2017) â€Å"Trump executive order aims to protect US from ‘catastrophic’ cyber attack US President Donald Trump this month signed an executive order that aims to increase protection for US essential services in case of a cyber attack that results in catastrophic regional or national effects on public health or safety, economic security, or national security†. (Kuchler, 2017) Nth Korea launches cyber attacks on US North Koreas main spy agency has a special cell called Unit 180 that is likely to have launched some of its most daring and successful cyber attacks, according to defectors, officials and internet security experts. North Korea has been blamed in recent years for a series of online attacks, mostly on financial networks, in the United States, South Korea and over a dozen other countries. Cyber security researchers have also said they have found technical evidence that could link North Korea with the global WannaCry ransomware cyber attack that infected more than 300,000 computers in 150 countries this month.   Pyongyang has called the allegation ridiculous. (Reuters, 2017) The research question of whether cyber warfare is a new arena of conflict is probably not in any doubt. The argument reverts back to the beginning of this research when examined the realist approach to international relations. Even if one were to look at the vast number of institutions in the international system and make a please for calmer heads prevailing, the realpolitik of current geopolitics shows that cyber attacks can, and will most likely, be used as a pretext and as a tool of war. It is no longer a question of if but when. Bibliography Andersen, P. H. & Kragh, H., 2011. Beyond the inductive myth: New approaches to the role of existing theory in case research. . In: R. Marschan-Piekkari & C. Welch, eds. Rethinking the case study in international business and management research. s.l.:Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, pp. 146-167. Andress, J. & Winterfeld, S., 2011. Cyber Warfare Techniques, tactics and Tools for Security Practitioners. s.l.:Elsevier Science. Andrews, L., Higgins, A., Andrews, M. & Lalor, J., 2012. Classic Grounded Theory to Analyze Data: Reality and Reffecions. Grounded Theory Review: An International Journal, June.11(1). Barkawi, T., 2011. From War to Security: Security Studies, the Wider Agenda and the Fate of the Study of War. Millenium: Journal of International Studies, Volume 39(Issue 3), pp. 701-716. Bernard, H. R., 2011. Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches.. s.l.:Rowman Altamira.. Carr, J., 2011. Inside cyber warfare: Mapping the cyber underworld. Sebastopol: OReilly Media, Inc.. Chen, T., 2010. Stuxnet, the real start of cyber warfare?. IEEE Network, Volume 24(Issue 6), pp. 2-3. Cobban, S. J., Edgington, E. M. & Pimlott, J. F., 2008. An ethical perspective on research using shared data.. Canadian Journal of Dental Hygiene, 42(5), pp. 233-238. Colarik, A. & Janczewski, L., 2008. Introduction to Cyber Warfare and. In: L. Janczewski & A. Colarik, eds. Cyber Warfare and Cyber Terrorism. New York: Information Science Reference. Colarik, A. & Janczewski, L., 2012. Establishing Cyber Warfare Doctrine. Journal of Strategic Security, Volume 5(Issue 1), pp. 31-48. Cornish, P., Livingstone, D., Clemente, D. & Yorke, C., 2010. On Cyber Warfare. London: Chatham House. Corti, L. & Bishop, L., 2005. Strategies in teaching secondary analysis of qualitative data. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6(1). Curran, K., Concannon, K. & McKeever, S., 2008. Cyber Terrorism Attacks. In: A. Colarik & L. Janczewski, eds. Cyber Warfare and Cyber Terrorism. New York: Infformation Science Reference. DeWeese, S., 2009. Capability of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to conduct cyber warfare and computer network exploitation. s.l.:Diane Publishing. Doward, J., 2017. Malta accuses Russia of cyber-attacks in run-up to election. [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/27/russia-behind-cyber-attacks-says-malta-jseph-muscat [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Dragan, M., Danko, M. & Mirjana, D., 2012. Defining Cyber Warfare. VojnotehniÄ ki Glasnik, Volume 60(Issue 2), pp. 84-117. Droege., C., 2012. Get off my cloud: cyber warfare, international humanitarian law, and the protection of civilians. International Review of the Red Cross,, Volume 94(Issue 886), pp. 533-578. Elliot, D. C., 2015. SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS. In: F. Stage & K. Manning, eds. Research in the College Context: Approaches and Methods. s.l.:s.n. Elman, C., Gerring, J. & Mahoney, J., 2016. Case Study Research: Putting the Quant Into the Qual. Sociological Methods & Research, 45(3), pp. 375-391. Fielding , N., 2004. Geting the most from archived qualitative data: epistemological, practical and professional obstacles. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 7(1), pp. 97-104. Gladstone, B. M., Volpe, T. & Boydell, K. M., 2007. Issues encountered in a qualitative secondary analysis of help seeking in the prodrome to psychosis. The Journal of behavioural Health Sciences and Research, 34(4), pp. 431-442. Gompert, D. & Libicki, M., 2014. Cyber Warfare and Sino-American Crisis Instability. Survival, Volume 56(Issue 4), pp. 7-22. Heaton, J., 1998. Secondary analysis of qualitative data. Social Research Update, Issue 22. Heaton, J., 2004. Reworking Qualitative Data. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Heaton, J., 2008. Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data: An Overview. Historical Social Research, 3(3). Heginbotham, E., 2015. The U.S.-China Military Scorecard Forces, Geography, and the Evolving Balance of Power 1996-2017, Santa Monica: The RAND Corporation. Hinds, P. S., Vogel, R. J. & Clarke-Steffen, L., 1997. The Possibilities and Pitfalls of Doing a Secondary Data Analysis of Qualitative Data Set. Qualitative Health Research, 7(3), pp. 408-424. Hjortdal, M., 2011. Chinas Use of Cyber Warfare: Espionage Meets Strategic Deterrence. Journal of Strategic Security, Volume 4(Issue 2), pp. 1-24. Hjortdal, M., 2011. Chinas Use of Cyber Warfare: Espionage Meets Strategic Deterrence. Journal of Strategic Security, Volume 4(2), pp. 1-24. Irwin, S., Bornat, J. & Winterton, M., 2012. Timescapes secondary analysis: Comparison, context and working across data sets. Qualitative Research, 12(1), pp. 66-80. Jensen, E. T., 2009. Cyber warfare and precautions against the effects of attacks. Texas law review, Volume Volume 88, p. 1533. Johnston, M., 2014. Secondary Data Analysis. A Method of which Time Has Come, Volume 3, pp. 619-626. Kelsey, J. T., 2008. Hacking into international humanitarian law: The principles of distinction and neutrality in the age of cyber warfare. Michigan Law Review, pp. 1427-1451. Knapp, K. J. & Boulton, W. R., 2006. Cyber-warfare threatens corporations: expansion into commercial environments. Information Systems Management, Volume 23(Issue 2), p. 76. Krasner, S., 1983. International Regimes. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Kuchler, H., 2017. Trump executive order aims to protect US from ‘catastrophic’ cyber attack. [Online] Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/1e46dd84-2422-11e7-a34a-538b4cb30025 [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Kuehl, D., 2009. From cyberspace to cyberpower: Defining the problem.. In: F. Kramer, S. Starr & K. Wentz, eds. Cyberpower and national security. Washington D.C.: Potomac Books Inc., pp. 24-42. Lagner, R., 2011. Stuxnet: Dissecting a cyberwarfare weapon. IEEE Security & Privacy, Volume 9(Issue 3), pp. 49-51. Lieberthal, K. & Singer, P., 2012. Cybersecurity and U.S.-China Relations. [Online] Availableat:https://www.brookings.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2016/06/0223_cybersecurity_china_us_lieberthal_singer_pdf_english.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2017]. Lindsay, J. R., 2013. Stuxnet and the limits of cyber warfare. Security Studies, Volume 22(Issue 3), pp. 365-404. Long-Sutehall, T., Sque, M. & Addington-Hall, J., 2011. Secondary analysis of qualitative data: A valuable method for exploring sensitive issues with an elusive population. Journal of Research in Nursing, 16(4), pp. 335-344. Mackenzie, N. & Knipe, S., 2006. Research dilemmas: Paradigms, methods and methodology.. Issues In Educational Research, 16(2), pp. 193-205. Marwil, J., 2000. Photography at War. [Online] Available at: http://www.historytoday.com/jonathan-marwil/photography-war [Accessed 21 May 2017]. Nicholson, A. et al., 2012. SCADA security in the light of Cyber-Warfare.. Computers & Security, Volume 31(Issue 4), pp. 418-436. Palys, T., 2008. Purposive Sampling. In: L. M. Given, ed. The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. Los Angeles: Sage, pp. 697-698. Reuters, 2017. Nth Korea launches cyber attacks on US. [Online] Available at: http://www.skynews.com.au/news/world/asiapacific/2017/05/21/nth-korea-launches-cyber-attacks-on-us.html [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Robinson, M., Jones, K. & Janicke, H., 2015. Cyber warfare: Issues and challenges. Computers & Security, Volume Volume 49, pp. 70-94. Robinson, M., Jones, K. & Janicke, H., 2015. Cyber warfare: Issues and challenges. Computers & Security,, Volume 49(Issue 25), p. 70. Shakarian, P., Shakarian, J. & Ruef, A., 2013. Introduction to cyber-warfare: A multidisciplinary approach. Oxford: Newnes. Solis, G., 2014. Cyber Warfare. Military Law Review, Volume Volume 219, pp. 1-52. Stavrianakis, A. & Selby, J., 2012. Militarism and International Relations. In: A. Stavrianakis & J. Selby, eds. Militarism and International Relations Political Economy, Security and Theory. s.l.:Taylor and Francis. Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C., 2010. Sage handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research. s.l.:Sage. Tennis, J. T., 2008. Epistemology, Theory and Methodology in Knowledge Organization: Toward a Classification, Metatheory, and Research Framework. In Knowledge Organization, 35(2/3), pp. 102-112. Tesch, R., 1990. Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools.. New York: Falmer. Thorne, S., 1990. Secondary Analysis in Qualitative Research: Issues and Implications. In: J. M. Morse, ed. Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods. London: Sage. Turns, D., 2012. Cyber Warfare and the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities. Journal of Conflict and Security Law,, Volume 17(Issue 2), pp. 279-297. Van den Berg, H., 2005. Reanalyzing qualitative interviews from different angles: the risk of de-contextualization and other problems of sharing qualitative data.. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, , 6(1). Vasilachis De Gialdino, I., 2009. Ontological and Epistemological Foundations of Qualitative Research. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(2), pp. 1438-5627.. Wang, H. & Wang, S., 2004. Cyber warfare: steganography vs. steganalysis. Communications of the ACM, Volume 47(Issue 10), pp. 76-82. Wolcott, H. T., 2009. Writing up qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. [1] These are computers that have been hijacked and remotely taken over by a person other than the owner. [2] Primary data is that which is from a study where the researcher personally collects the information but secondary data is data that has already been collected (Andrews, et al., 2012). [3] From December 18 to 22, 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of China was held in Beijing. The party decided that China should start shift its economic focus from class struggle-oriented to economic construction-oriented, from semi-rigid/rigid to comprehensive reform, and, from semi-closed/closed to opening up.Invalid source specified.

cinderella Essay -- essays research papers

Cinderella: Once Upon A Time The story of Cinderella has appealed to a number of audiences since its earliest dated version in A.D. 850. Even with the extensive selection of fairy tales in existence, "Cinderella" is undoubtedly the best known in the world, with over 700 versions of this story available. However, this popularity is not limited strictly to literature, for the Cinderella theme is also seen in many movie productions. Two movies, Walt Disney's Cinderella and Andy Tennant's Ever After: A Cinderella Story, are of particular interest. These films share many similarities, both in the screenplay and in the visual effects, but a vast difference exists between the two. Though both teach that goodness will ultimately triumph over evil and villainy, Ever After's depiction of the characters presents a better moral lesson for our society by showing that independence and intelligence are just as important as goodness. Throughout history, as evidenced by Perault and the Grimm Brothers, Cinderella has typically been portrayed as the girl who obeys without complaining. She is characterized to be a perfect woman, both in purity and in beauty. All stories are somewhat influenced by the times in which they are written, and "Cinderella" is no exception. In fact, the date in which Disney's Cinderella was released, 1950, most likely played a significant role in this particular Cinderella's success. After the years of poverty and struggle of the Great Depression and World War II, America wanted a change. Instead of being reminded of the past, this generation wanted to look toward the future as a time of happiness, success, and stability. Cinderella gave them this chance. Its ideals are simple and follow the morality themes of ordinary fairy tales: if one is pure and follows his or her conscience, one's dreams will come true. Disney adheres to the typical portrayal of Cinderella as the perfect woma n. In the Disney movie, she is young, innocent, and pure. More importantly, she plays a sweet, innocent girl with whom no one can find a fault. She accepts her circumstances, and makes the best of them, no matter how dire and unfavorable. Though she is a servant in her own home, with her stepfamily ordering her about, her only response to this abuse is, "I know it isn't easy maciej mikula, but we should at least try and get along together." Cin... ...r more than she needs him, though the outward appearance may seem otherwise. This is more evidence of the independence people in the 21st century encourage in both women and men. Walt Disney's Cinderella and Andy Tennant's Ever After are both based on the original Cinderella stories. However, because both of them were released in very different times, many differences mark the two versions, though they keep many of the key elements that appeal to such a wide audience over the centuries. In both stories, Cinderella is a beautiful, young lady with a kind heart. Ever After, however, adds intelligence and courage to these qualities. Leading into the 21st century, these additions make Cinderella a much more modern and appealing role model for both the female and male audiences. Cinderella triumphs over her evil stepfamily in Ever After by playing an active role in receiving her freedom and by demonstrating to the viewer that knowledge is just as important a trait as goodness. Even tho ugh Cinderella and her prince live "happily ever after" in both Disney and Tennant's depictions, how each girl got to the point of this ever-famous phrase has dramatically changed with the times.

Holmes v South Carolina Essay

Facts: Holmes was charged with first degree murder, first degree burglary and robbery in connection with an incident involving an 86 year old woman, Mary Stewart. Holmes was also charged for the rape and murder of Stewart. At the trial court, Holmes was convicted by the South Carolina Supreme Court. The United States Supreme Court denied certiorari. The petitioner had appealed and the court granted a new trail. During the new trial the prosecution introduced new forensic evidence including palm prints and blood that was found at the scene of the crime. At the new trial, the petitioner also sought to introduce proof of another man named Jimmy McCaw White. The court excluded the third party evidence of guilt because the grounds of the evidence were not admissible. The evidenced only implicated that the third party and did not exclude the defendant. The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari Issue: Is evidence of a third party’s guilt admissible if it only implicates the third party and does not exculpate the defendant? Rule and Rationale: Yes. Under the Constitution of the United States, a defendant in a criminal case has to be given the opportunity to present a complete defense. The defendant also has the right and opportunity to present evidence of innocence, and only the evidence of guilt of a third party. Excluding evidence and only hearing the prosecutions evidence in the case did not give the court the right to make a conclusion based on the evidence at hand. The evidence against the prosecution supported that the defendant was guilty but did not automatically exclude the evidence of the third party as weak. Holmes was entitled to introduce the evidence of Whites guilt. The exclusion of that evidence violated Holmes’s right to have the opportunity to present a complete defense. Standard Relied On: State v. Gay, 541 S.E.2d 541, 545 (S.C. 2001). The case gave clear meaning by bringing to light that the strength of one party’s evidence has no logical conclusion that can be reached regarding the strength of the contrary evidence from the other side to cast doubt. The rule from Gay was arbitrary and violated a criminal defendant’s right to have a meaningful opportunity to present a complete defense Case Significance: The case clarified the Constitutional validity of rules of admission for third party guilt evidence. Just because the evidence against the prosecution supported the defendant’s guilt, this did not automatically exclude the third party’s evidence. Additionally, no logical conclusions can be made based on contrary evidence that cast doubt on the defendant.

Reading Response on “Murder on the Orient Express” by Agatha Christie Essay

This book is about a detective who boards a train to a have a vacation, however one of the passengers were murdered during the night. Therefore, Hercule Poirot interviews everyone to try find the murderer. I really enjoyed this book as it got me guessing who the murderer is right way through the book. When I read this book again a found a few clues that I just read over without noticing them. For example, Mary Debenham says â€Å"Not now. Not now. When it’s all over. When it’s behind us. Then,† to Colonel Arbuthnot. At this moment Poirot, Mary and Arbuthnot are the only passengers aboard the train. This is important intimate relationship between Mary and Colonel Arbuthnot is suspicious because the two seem like strangers to each other. Even though it is unclear what Mary is talking about, it is a bit suspicious as what will be â€Å"over.† When the events start unfolding, Mary and Colonel refuse to tell Poirot what they were talking about. This book made me think of people in general and their identity. In the first two sections, all the passengers seem correct but in the third section, their identities are revealed. Most of the passengers tell the truth about their names but not their profession or association with the victim. Some of the passengers changed their names This book also made me think about justice, as Ratchette was a bad person and kidnapped the Armstrong’s daughter but is found not guilty, so 12 passengers who are associated with the Armstrong family have a plan to kill him to set things right. It made me think how sometimes life can be unfair but is it good to avenge someone, especially if they are innocent? This book shows that if it was for the better, then it is fair.

Modern Economic Theories Essays - Keynesian Economics, Free Essays

Modern Economic Theories Essays - Keynesian Economics, Free Essays Modern Economic Theories Two controversial economic policies are Keynesian economics and Supply Side economics. They represent opposite sides of the economic policy spectrum and were introduced at opposite ends of the 20th century, yet still are the most famous for their effects on the economy of the United States when they were used. The founder of Keynesian economic theory was John Maynard Keynes. He made many great accomplishments during his time and probably his greatest was what he did for America in its hour of need. During the 1920?s, the U.S. experienced a stock market crash of enormous proportions which crippled the economy for years. Keynes knew that to recover as soon as possible, the government had to intervene and put a decrease on taxes along with an increase in spending. By putting more money into the economy and allowing more Americans to keep what they earned, the economy soon recovered and once again became prosperous. Keynes ideas were very radical at the time, and Keynes was called a socialist in disguise. Keynes was not a socialist, he just wanted to make sure that the people had enough money to invest and help the economy along. As far as stressing extremes, Keynesian economics pushed for a ?happy medium? where output and prices are conezt, and there is no surplus in supply, but also no deficit. Supply Side economics emphasized the supply of goods and services. Supply Side economics supports higher taxes and less government spending to help economy. Unfortunately, the Supply Side theory was applied in excess during a period in which it was not completely necessary. The Supply Side theory, also known as Reganomics, was initiated during the Regan administration. During the 1970?s, the state and local governments increased sales and excise taxes. These taxes were passed from business to business and finally to the customer, resulting in higher prices. Along with raised taxes for the middle and lower classes, this effect was compounded because there was little incentive to work if even more was going to be taxed. People were also reluctant to put money into savings accounts or stocks because the interest dividends were highly taxed. There was also too much protection of business by the government which was inefficient and this also ran up costs, and one thing the Supply Side theory was quite good at was reinforcing inflation. The two opposites of the Supply Side and Keynes? theories are well matched theories, but it was the time of use that made them good and bad. Keynes? theory was used during that aftermath of the Great Depression, a catastrophe America will never forget and will never be able to repay Keynes for the economic assiezce in recovering from it. The Supply Side theory was used after a long period of prosperity, and although seeming to continue the practices of the past administration, was the cause of a fearful recession. The success of those or any economic theory is based on the time at which it is implemented.

Ivory Trail Analysis Essay Example

Ivory Trail Analysis Essay Example Ivory Trail Analysis Essay Ivory Trail Analysis Essay The front cover of The Ivory Trail, by Victor Kelleher, reveals quite a lot about what the novel is about. It also attracts the attention of the reader using color, images and text. The text reveals that the novel involves a long journey made by the protagonist. The main colors used are orange, red, and black. These colors suggest eeriness and mystery. The color red suggests anger and rage, which is possibly felt by the main character at some point in the novel. The four graphics on the cover are a sphinx, a pyramid, a temple and the close up of a man’s face. The sphinx and the pyramid immediately grasp hold of the reader’s attention because of the brightness and location of the images located right in the middle of the text. Also, these images show that the story is set in Egypt. The difference between the light and the dark gives a sense of mystery. The temples at the top of the page represent an Indian or Arabian culture. The man’s face at the bottom of the page looking up indicates a feeling of question and wonder. The text â€Å"Not all Journeys have an ending† adds more mystery to that the reader already acquires from the graphics. This phrase also leaves the reader wondering what it means. The reader can only assume that the journey that will be taken is not only going to be physical, but spiritual as well. The title â€Å"The Ivory Trail† immediately catches the reader’s eye against the black background. The word ‘Trail’ suggests a long and rough road that the protagonist must take on his Journey. The word ‘Ivory’ is related to elephants in Africa, and illegal trade of ivory. This also adds to the sense of mystery and abstruseness. In conclusion, the cover reveals a lot about the journey the main character is about to embark and the discoveries he is going to make.

Brick Wall Strategies for Finding Your Ancestors

Brick Wall Strategies for Finding Your Ancestors When it comes to family trees things are rarely straightforward. Families often disappear between one census and the next; records are lost or destroyed through mishandling, fire, war, and flood; and sometimes the facts you do find just dont make sense. When your family history research hits a dead-end, organize your facts and try one of these popular brick wall-busting tactics. Review What You Already Have I know. It seems basic. But I cant stress enough how many brick walls are breached with information that the researcher already has tucked away in notes, files, boxes or on the computer. Information that you found a few years ago may include names, dates or other details that now provide clues given new facts that youve since uncovered. Organizing your files and reviewing your information and evidence may uncover just the clue youre looking for. Go Back to the Original Source Many of us are guilty when transcribing information or recording notes of only including the information we deem important at the time. You may have kept the names and dates from that old census record, but did you also keep track of other information such as years of marriage and country of parents origin? Did you record the names of the neighbors? Or, perhaps, you misread a name or misinterpreted a relationship? If you havent already, be sure to go back to the original records, making complete copies and transcriptions and recording all clues - however unimportant they may seem right now. Broaden Your Search When youre stuck on a particular ancestor, a good strategy is to extend your search to family members and neighbors. When you cant find a birth record for your ancestor that lists his/her parents, maybe you can locate one for a sibling. Or, when youve lost a family between census years, try looking for their neighbors. You may be able to identify a migration pattern, or a mis-indexed census entry that way. Often referred to as cluster genealogy, this research process can often get you past tough brick walls. Question and Verify Many brick walls are built from incorrect data. In other words, your sources may be leading you in the wrong direction through their inaccuracy. Published sources often contain transcription errors, while even original documents may contain misinformation, whether purposefully or accidentally given. Try to find at least three records to verify any facts that you already know and judge the quality of your data based on the weight of the evidence. Check Name Variations Your brick wall may just be something as simple as looking for the wrong name. Variations of last names can make research complicated, but be sure to check all spelling options. Soundex is a first step, but you cant count on it entirely - some name variations can actually result in different soundex codes. Not only can the surnames be different, but the given name may be different as well. Ive found records recorded under initials, middle names, nicknames, etc. Get creative with name spellings and variations and cover all the possibilities. Learn Your Boundaries Even though you know that your ancestor lived on the same farm, you may still be looking in the wrong jurisdiction for your ancestor. Town, county, state, and even country boundaries have changed over time as populations grew or political authority changed hands. Records were also not always registered in the locality where your ancestors lived. In Pennsylvania, for example, births and deaths can be registered in any county, and many of my Cambria county ancestors records were actually located in neighboring Clearfield county because they lived closer to that county seat and found it a more convenient trip. So, bone up on your historical geography and you just may find a new route around your brick wall. Ask for Help Fresh eyes can often see beyond brick walls, so try bouncing your theories off other researchers. Post a query to a Web site or mailing list which focuses on the locality in which the family lived, check with members of the local historical or genealogical society, or just talk through it with someone else who loves family history research. Be sure to include what you already know, as well as what youd like to know and which tactics youve already tried.

Marketing Project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing Project - Assignment Example The major competitors of this company are Passions of Paradise, Sunlover Reef Cruises, the Diving Cairns and Pro-dive Cairns. All the four companies offer almost similar services which ranger from Scuba Diving, Live Aboard diving to deep sea diving and site viewing. Thus, most of their target markets are Local tourists and tourists from the neighbouring nations. Passion of Paradise among other competitors that quicksilver cruiser faces offer a relatively limited range of products and thus the fact that quicksilver cruises offers a wide range product keeps it ahead of competition. This report generates the details necessary for the company to compete in the Queensland area by offering a unique product line that is desirable by tourist for neighbouring countries. The focus is on customers from Hong Kong and the development of a plan of analysis that details the unique nature of this East Asian market, how Quicksilver Cruises can best market to this demographic group, and how the develo pment of a comprehensive marketing plan will help them to be successful in this endeavour for the long term. Quicksilver Cruise operates in the highly competitive tourism industry within Queensland, Australia. Being on the coast, the company offers a product line that is appealing to many types of tourists, particularly those from the Hong Kong region. As the company is in a particular genre with many other businesses, however, it must focus on carving its own unique niche within the market. To accomplish this objective, the company has been working hard over the past years to develop unique tours and water sport offerings that others in the region are not currently offering. In addition, the company does have a focus on attracting tourists from nearby regions. Of particular interest at this time is the Hong Kong market. Hong Kong itself represents a unique opportunity for Quicksilver Cruises to market an area of the

WORLD WAR II IN THE PACIFIC THEATER Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

WORLD WAR II IN THE PACIFIC THEATER - Essay Example 10. The main strategic objective Admiral Nimitz included in almost all his operational directives to Task Force Commanders was: A. Related to the situation at hand; a secondary objective of sinking Japanese carriers if the opportunity existed; and risk was acceptable.11. Advantages of the Southwest Pacific thrust of the multi-pronged U.S. Pacific strategy included all of the following except: A. A lack of unity of command at the operational level in that the Australian commander, General Sir Thomas Blamey, was co-equal with the American, General Douglas MacArthur, which inhibited some operations, but ultimately improved Allied command relationships.12. While U.S. grand strategy emphasized "Europe First," by the end of 1943, the flow of resources and manpower from America in both theaters remained basically equal. Why was this so B. With the landings in the Aleutian Islands the Japanese were a serious threat to the West Coast of the United States. 13. The decisive factor for U.S. success in the Pacific Theater in World War II was the: B. Outstanding decision process resulting in both operational and strategic success in the carrier battles of World War II. 14. The dominant element among Japanese leaders in the strategic debate prior to Pearl Harbor was: B. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto15. The Navy's role in Japanese strategy was: C. Essential to attainment of overall Japanese political objectives as only the Japanese Navy could secure the "Southern Resource Area" vital to the Japanese economy and war effort.... B. They arrayed the nearly 200 ships they employed in the action in widely separated and non-reinforcing groups, thus depriving themselves of the opportunity for a decisive night action with battleships and cruisers against the surviving U.S. carriers. A. A lack of unity of command at the operational level in that the Australian commander, General Sir Thomas Blamey, was co-equal with the American, General Douglas MacArthur, which inhibited some operations, but ultimately improved Allied command relationships. C. The carrier Enterprise, under repairs for the bomb hits she took during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, did not arrive in theater until 24 October and the U.S. would thus have only the carrier Hornet available. D. lack of aircraft carriers since, after the battle, the U.S. was down to a single carrier and had to rely on the British to provide H.M.S. Victorious until U.S.S. Saratoga returned to Fleet service and other new-construction carriers started to join the Fleet 30. A strategy is only as good as the Material Dimension that supports it. In terms of the U.S.

Describe the economic background of British Airways. Identify three Essay

Describe the economic background of British Airways. Identify three probelms and propose three solutions - Essay Example it would be to exhibit the proclamations of this corporation, we must first understand British Airways’ true economic past and current situation that we may assess any apparent failures and successes. British Airways has, in its years of operation, has continued its vocation with responsible and efficient provided services. In the suspect economy the international aviation market now possesses, it is almost ridiculous to specifically relate past economic standings to those of today, for today’s market differs even from yesterdays, ad infinitum. However, in keep this notion, we may view British Airways’ past economic conditions in comparison to the company’s internal and separate record. To be most efficient, we view the status of the company from the year 96 to present; keeping in mind, of course, how absolute the success of this business has been. With it’s highly regarded standing as one, if not the only, leading carrier in the UK, British Airways has carried millions of passengers out of 550 airports including its main station which is the largest international airport in the world; Heathrow. The company has multiple industry partners including franchise partner GB Airways, British Mediterranean, Sun Air and Comair, and â€Å"oneworld† partners Iberia, Qantas, Finnair, American Airlines, Aer Lingus and Cathay Pacific Airways. UNICEF, British Airways’ United Nations Children’s Fund, commenced in April 1994 and has raised funds to support many a good cause; the most recent development in the effort being the launch of the â€Å"Change for Good† programme which offers funds raised to aid needy children across the world. In 2005 alone, British Airways received 34 Awards in various months for its services and overall business standards. Among them: â€Å"Global 100 Most Sustainable Corporation s,† given by Corporate Knights Inc at the World Economic Forum in February; Best International Airline and Best Domestic Airline, given by the Association of

Nobel Peace Prize laureate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Nobel Peace Prize laureate - Essay Example In between he served briefly as Prime minister in the year 1973 – 74. This Nobel Prize held a lot of significance to the person receiving it. It is the highest honor for any individual to be recognized for their sincere and selfless efforts taken towards acquiring peace and stability for their country and countrymen. It was Alfred Nobel’s wish that the Peace Prize should be awarded to those noble people who strived hard for brotherhood and peace, sometimes even at the cost of their own lives, as happened to Muhamed Anwar Al Sadat. The Nobel Peace Prize of 1978 was given as a joint award to the Israeli Prime minister Menachen Begin and Muhamed Anwar Al Sadat for their courage in bringing peace to their countries in the face of adversity. The Middle East, for the last thirty years has been torn and ravaged with the scars of so many different wars and was badly in need of peace as well as a strong reconstruction program to help it to its feet once again. This noble deed came in the guise of the President of Egypt, Muhamed Sadat who exerted a lot of effort on the peace front. The Egyptian government was deep in debt and hence was forced to sell its interests to the British Government and linked the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal. These resources were then utilized by the British and the French to lay the foundation for a strong political control over Egypt and its affairs. He completed his education at the Military College. In Egypt and soon after his graduation, he was posted at a distant out post by the government authorities. It was during this time that he met a person called Gamal Abdel Nasser and began a long political association with him, which finally led to his presidency. This out post served as the culmination point of revolutionaries like himself who were determined to overthrow the British rule. Sadat went to jail a couple of times

INTB300 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

INTB300 - Essay Example The author believes that while education is major element that is able to promote these ideals, it can, at the same time become a tool for the vested interest to play havoc with the lives of the innocent people. The financial scams, terrorism, child abuse etc. are few instances of misuse of education at its worst. Globalization has become an intrinsic part of contemporary social structure which needs to be understood for its wider ramifications on various spheres of human life. Indeed, historical events have been great facilitators to understand the change. One therefore must make efforts to understand the complex nature of changing social values and adopt them in their lives so as to exploit them for one’s own personal and professional growth. The current recessive trend in American economy is often contributed to President Reagan’s market policies and liberalization. But it is important to note that deregulation of banks was the major factor that had promoted riskier business propositions. It was during President Clinton’s administration that banks’ deregulation bill was passed. Hence, sub-prime loans of banks for housing had ultimately resulted in the collapse of American economy. Thus, one can say that economic reforms must be accompanied by effective government control

Human Rights in International Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Human Rights in International Law - Essay Example Other than these methods, other international human rights instruments also exist that are not legally binding but have an effect on the implementation, understanding and development of international human rights laws. These sources of law have been recognised to have a political obligation1. International human rights laws are enforceable on the domestic, regional and international levels. Any states that are involved in human rights treaties undertake a voluntary obligation to respect the rights recognised in the respective treaties. Furthermore, it is the duty of the state to ensure compliance of domestic laws with the conditions laid down in treaties so that domestic and international law is compatible. Although the primary mechanism of human rights protection and the ensuing legal framework are mostly domestic in nature but the bereaved party may resort to regional or international legal mechanisms to redress concerns. Alternatively, regional or international legal mechanisms ma y enforce themselves on domestic situations in order to deal with human rights abuses. Human rights are protected internationally through the use of two parallel legal mechanisms namely the international human rights laws and the international humanitarian laws. ... For general cases, human rights are taken to regulate the relationship existing between individuals and the state within the context of an ordinary life. In contrast, humanitarian laws are taken to regulate the relationship between a belligerent state and any parties it comes into contact with. These parties could be hostile or neutral when seen in the context of an armed conflict2. This paper will concern itself with the implementation of human rights laws alone on the domestic, regional and international levels. 2. International Law on Human Rights In the post World War Two scenario, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is the watershed of international human rights law. The United Nations General Assembly adopted this declaration in 1948 and can be seen as a reaction to the experiences of the Second World War. In itself, this declaration is the first global expression of rights that all human beings are entitled to3. The importance of this declaration stems from the fact that its articles have been used subsequently in international treaties, national constitutions, domestic laws and regional human rights instruments. The declaration is not a treaty in itself but has been adopted explicitly in order to define the words â€Å"human rights† and â€Å"fundamental freedoms† that are listed in the United Nations Charter. In turn, the United Nations Charter is binding on all member states and so the Universal Declaration on Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document for the United Nations. A large body of international lawyers holds that the Declaration is part of customary international law. This position implies that the Declaration is an

INTB300 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

INTB300 - Essay Example The author believes that while education is major element that is able to promote these ideals, it can, at the same time become a tool for the vested interest to play havoc with the lives of the innocent people. The financial scams, terrorism, child abuse etc. are few instances of misuse of education at its worst. Globalization has become an intrinsic part of contemporary social structure which needs to be understood for its wider ramifications on various spheres of human life. Indeed, historical events have been great facilitators to understand the change. One therefore must make efforts to understand the complex nature of changing social values and adopt them in their lives so as to exploit them for one’s own personal and professional growth. The current recessive trend in American economy is often contributed to President Reagan’s market policies and liberalization. But it is important to note that deregulation of banks was the major factor that had promoted riskier business propositions. It was during President Clinton’s administration that banks’ deregulation bill was passed. Hence, sub-prime loans of banks for housing had ultimately resulted in the collapse of American economy. Thus, one can say that economic reforms must be accompanied by effective government control

Legal Aspects of Supply Chain Management Case Study

Legal Aspects of Supply Chain Management - Case Study Example The M.D. would like to clarify some details of the contractual report based on these guidelines. The less favoured common laws (or case laws) for contracts are developed through individual contractual decisions by judges necessary to decide cases brought before them. On the other hand, statutes formed via legislations have become the commonest source of contract laws. These statutes are actually derived through Acts of UK Parliament. Since the sales of goods are within the United Kingdom, it is important to note that all statutes can be applied to any combination of jurisdictions within the UK, whereas the common law jurisdictions are more limited. In order for the contract to be legally binding under local English law and statutes, it requires the main following contractual elements: an offer and an acceptance.With respect to frozen food contracts, these basic contract requirements require careful consideration. With respect to offer of a contract, it is an expression of willingness for both parties, MorrisBury (buyer) and Freeze'n'Go (seller), to agree on certain bilateral terms that would benefit both sides. It must be made with the intention that the contract will become binding upon acceptance. The nature of an offer can be encapsulated by a case involving the defendant, Manchester City Council. The Council decided to sell houses that it owned to sitting tenants. In two cases, the claimants entered into agreements with the Council. The Council then resolved not to sell housing unless it was contractually bound to do so. In this case, the question arose as to whether or not the Council had entered into a contract. In the case [25], the Court of Appeal found that there was a binding contract. The Council had sent Storer a communication that they intended would be binding upon his acceptance. All Storer had to do to bind himself to the later sale was to sign the document and return it. In similarity, MorrisBury could make an unconditional offer which could be accepted by Freeze'n'Go.In this case, if the supplier informs buyer that the offer is accepted, there will be a binding contract.It is particularly important for the buyer wanting to purchase frozen foods are interpreted as a legal binding contract.If MorrisBury constitute a formal offer to receive certain foods, then the they may be in breach of civil and even criminal laws if there are certain categories of Freeze'n'Go who would not ordinarily be entitled to sell which are being offered [1]. For an offer to be effective, an offer must be communicated. Another way of stating this is to say that there can be no acceptance of the offer without knowledge of the offer. The reason for this requirement is that if we say that a contract is an agreed bargain, there can be no agreement without knowledge. There can be no meeting of the minds if Freeze'n'Go is unaware of the MorrisBury. Stated another way, an acceptance cannot mirror an offer if the acceptance is made in ignorance of the offer. In an exemplary case of [14], a policeman was

Investigating mass surveillance

Investigating mass surveillance (How) Is Big Brother Watching Us? Big Brother is a fictional character in George Orwells dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, which tells the story of one mans attempt to rebel against the totalitarian state in which he lives. In the society that Orwell describes, everybody lives under complete twenty-four hour surveillance by the governing authorities. Since the publication of Nineteen Eighty-Four, the phrase Big Brother has entered the English language, to describe any attempts by governments to use mass surveillance.[1] The main surveillance tool described in Orwells novel is the imaginary telescreen, a cross between a television and a security camera[2], and in the past decade growing comparisons have been drawn between the imaginary telescreen and the Internet-connected personal computer that is in many modern homes. The purpose of this essay is to investigate the mass surveillance of Internet communications carried out by western governments today, and the technologies used to carry out that surveillance. The essay will first look at the current privacy landscape in the USA, the European Union, and the UK, in terms of policies and legislation. Then it will discuss some of the most interesting technical methods used to carry out mass Internet communications surveillance. The terrorist attacks on New Yorks World Trade Centre, of September 11th 2001, heralded the dawn of a new global political era. Following those atrocities and subsequent attacks in Egypt, the United Kingdom, Spain, Bali, Russia, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia, governments around the world have responded by tightening existing legislation and creating new anti-terror laws. Many of the countries that changed their laws to combat terrorist threats also increased the powers of their law enforcement and national security organisations to perform communications surveillance and carry out electronic data search and seizure. The Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001, more commonly known as The Patriot Act, was signed into law less than seven weeks after the Twin Towers attacks. The Act is organised into ten titles, including Title II: Enhanced Surveillance Procedures, and Title IX: Improved intelligence. The Patriot Act, which was Americas legislative response to the September 11th attacks, hugely increased American law enforcement and national security services authority both in the USA and abroad. The Patriot Act strengthened immigration, banking, and money laundering laws. The Patriot Act also amended the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) of 1978, which includes subchapters covering electronic surveillance and trap and trace devices (used to capture non-content information regarding electronic communication). FISA was also expanded by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004.[3] In July of 2002 the European Union passed the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications'[4]. This directive was amended in 2005 by the Electronic communications: personal data protection rules and availability of traffic data for anti-terrorism purposes directive.[5] These directives will lead to European telecom firms being required to store data regarding the time and duration of all fixed line, internet, and mobile telephone calls, the location of mobile telephone calls, and details of all internet connections and e-mail messages (although e-mail content is not recorded). The UK government was the prime mover in lobbying for this directive, stating that data was the golden thread in terrorist investigations.[6] We have seen then that current privacy landscape has been heavily influenced by the changing global political situation with specific reference to global terrorism. We know that legislation exists that allows western governments to carry out mass surveillance, but what do they actually do and how do they do it? Mass surveillance can take many forms, including physical surveillance in the form of identity systems, audio, video, RFID and satellite surveillance. Data surveillance can also be used in the areas of electronic commerce and public records.[7] For the purpose of this essay we will look specifically at some of the most interesting technologies (allegedly) used by government organisations to carry out mass surveillance of Internet communications. One of the most infamous alleged mass electronic communication surveillance technologies is ECHELON, a top-secret Anglo-American collaboration tasked with gathering signals intelligence around the world. Although its existence is still officially denied the European Parliament commissioned a report in 2001 entitled on the existence of a global system for the interception of private and commercial communications (ECHELON interception system)'[8]. They were sufficiently convinced of ECHELONs capabilities to recommend that European citizens and businesses should routinely encrypt their communications in order to maintain privacy[9]. The idea of the ECHELON network was supposedly agreed between London and Washington as far back as 1948, although its existence was not brought to public attention until the publication of New Statesman article in 1988. ECHELONs capabilities are the subject of much debate; some estimates report that it can sift through 90% of Internet traffic, though the European Union found that the technical capabilities of the system are probably not nearly as extensive. The hardware used to collect the information also remains something of a mystery, with some sources claiming that ECHELON controls over one hundred satellites and dozens of ground based listening stations. Others point out that very little (

Argumentative Essay: Women Should Not Be Allowed To Go Topless In Publi

Argumentative Essay: Should Women Be Allowed To Go Topless in Public   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the summer of 1996 Gwen Jacobs enjoyed a topless summer stroll during which she was seen by a local O.P.P officer, was apprehended and subsequently charged with indecent exposure. Gwen Jacobs pleaded not guilty in court and won the right to go topless in Ontario. This incident brought up an excellent question: should women be allowed to go topless on public beaches and in other public areas? The answer is strictly no, women should not be allowed to go topless anywhere outside of their own home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the many reasons why I believe that women should not be allowed to go topless is with respect to the safety of women. Men and boys have, in recent years, been using short, tight, skirts and shirts as an excuse for rape or date rape. Men have said that the girl was wearing a tight shirt and short skirt and it was obvious that she was easy and wanted the attention. This statement leads me to my next point. The average human being upon first contact with a stranger bases his initial impression of that person solely on the person's appearance. This is only natural as the only thing that we know about this stranger is what we see of them the first time we meet. We all are aware of the sayings "Preppy","Jockish","Skater","Sluty" etc. This final saying, â€Å"Sluty† is interpreted by 90 percent of North Americans as a tight skirt and tight tank top which happens to be the usual ensembl... Argumentative Essay: Women Should Not Be Allowed To Go Topless In Publi Argumentative Essay: Should Women Be Allowed To Go Topless in Public   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the summer of 1996 Gwen Jacobs enjoyed a topless summer stroll during which she was seen by a local O.P.P officer, was apprehended and subsequently charged with indecent exposure. Gwen Jacobs pleaded not guilty in court and won the right to go topless in Ontario. This incident brought up an excellent question: should women be allowed to go topless on public beaches and in other public areas? The answer is strictly no, women should not be allowed to go topless anywhere outside of their own home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the many reasons why I believe that women should not be allowed to go topless is with respect to the safety of women. Men and boys have, in recent years, been using short, tight, skirts and shirts as an excuse for rape or date rape. Men have said that the girl was wearing a tight shirt and short skirt and it was obvious that she was easy and wanted the attention. This statement leads me to my next point. The average human being upon first contact with a stranger bases his initial impression of that person solely on the person's appearance. This is only natural as the only thing that we know about this stranger is what we see of them the first time we meet. We all are aware of the sayings "Preppy","Jockish","Skater","Sluty" etc. This final saying, â€Å"Sluty† is interpreted by 90 percent of North Americans as a tight skirt and tight tank top which happens to be the usual ensembl...

Eric Arthur Blair :: essays research papers

Eric Blair’s fictional name was George Orwell , born June 25,1903 in Motihari, India . At that time â€Å"India was part of the British Empire†(Orwell page 1 of 4). This was near the turn of the century, so not many people could afford to move to India with out the â€Å"British Empire†(Orwell pg. 1 of 4). Eric’s father Richard Blair was an agent of the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service.Blair’s Grandfather served in the Indian Army for sometime before Blair’s birth. His family was â€Å" not very wealthy [Blair] later described them as lower-upper-middle class†(Orwell pg.1of 4). In fact, they owned no property or held any investment what’s so ever. When Eric was about 8 his family moved back to England and moved to a town called Henley, although his father still worked in India. Being middle-class, going to school was tough; however, his parents sent him to a private school in Sussex at the tender age of 8. By the time he was 13 he had received a â€Å"scholarship to Wellington, and soon after another to Eaton, the famous public school†(Orwell pg.1 of 4). After being forced to be good in school, he was not interested in â€Å"anymore †¦ further mental exertion†(Orwell pg. 1 of 4). So he decided to go with his private ambition, to write. At the beginning he writes â€Å" At the age of five or six [he] knew that he would be-must be a writer†(Orwell pg1 of 4). He made up his mind fast unlike many other writers. However, to be a writer one has to read literature. However, at Eaton English Lit. was not a major subject, because â€Å"most boys [ that went to Eaton] came from backgrounds either irremediably unliterary or so literary that to teach them English Literature would be absurd†(Orwell pg.1 of 4). Although he wanted to become a writer he finished â€Å"138th of 167†(Orwell pg. 2 of 4). After this he decided to join the Indian imperial Police ; however, he later left after 5 years in service. This was distracting him from his main lifestyle, a writer and because â€Å" wished to escape from †¦every form of man’s dominion over man†(Orwell pg. 2 of 4). In London he settled down into a â€Å"grotty bedroom†(Orwell pg.2 of 4). And started to teach himself how to write. He was now twenty-four and â€Å"week after week he remained in his unheated bedroom†(Orwell pg. 2 of 4). It was so cold that he â€Å"[thawed] his hands over a candle when they became to numb to write†(Orwell pg. 2 of 4).